Henri Poincaré
Математический институт Клэя в США присудил российскому ученому Григорию Перельману Премию тысячелетия (Millennium Prize) за доказательство гипотезы Пуанкаре. Об этом в четверг, 18 марта, сообщается на официальном сайте института.
В 2006 году ему была присуждена высшая математическая награда — Филдсовская премия, однако получить ее россиянин отказался. Согласился ли Перельман получить Премию тысячелетия от института Клэя, не уточняется.
See also Top 100 living geniuses.
The Clay Mathematics Institute (CMI) announces today that Dr. Grigoriy Perelman of St. Petersburg, Russia, is the recipient of the Millennium Prize for resolution of the Poincaré conjecture. The citation for the award reads:
The Clay Mathematics Institute hereby awards the Millennium Prize for resolution of the Poincaré conjecture to Grigoriy Perelman.
The Poincaré conjecture is one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems established by CMI in 2000. The Prizes were conceived to record some of the most difficult problems with which mathematicians were grappling at the turn of the second millennium; to elevate in the consciousness of the general public the fact that in mathematics, the frontier is still open and abounds in important unsolved problems; to emphasize the importance of working towards a solution of the deepest, most difficult problems; and to recognize achievement in mathematics of historical magnitude.
The award of the Millennium Prize to Dr. Perelman was made in accord with their governing rules: recommendation first by a Special Advisory Committee (Simon Donaldson, David Gabai, Mikhail Gromov, Terence Tao, and Andrew Wiles), then by the CMI Scientific Advisory Board (James Carlson, Simon Donaldson, Gregory Margulis, Richard Melrose, Yum-Tong Siu, and Andrew Wiles), with final decision by the Board of Directors (Landon T. Clay, Lavinia D. Clay, and Thomas M. Clay).
James Carlson, President of CMI, said today, "resolution of the Poincaré conjecture by Grigoriy Perelman brings to a close the century-long quest for the solution. It is a major advance in the history of mathematics that will long be remembered." Carlson went on to announce that CMI and the Institut Henri Poincaré (IHP) will hold a conference to celebrate the Poincaré conjecture and its resolution June 8 and 9 in Paris. The program will be posted on www.claymath.org. In addition, on June 7, there will be a press briefing and public lecture by Etienne Ghys at the Institut Océanographique, near the IHP.
Reached at his office at Imperial College, London for his reaction, Fields Medalist Dr. Simon Donaldson said, "I feel that Poincaré would have been very satisfied to know both about the profound influence his conjecture has had on the development of topology over the last century and the surprising way in which the problem was solved, making essential use of partial differential equations and differential geometry."
Poincaré's conjecture and Perelman's proof
Formulated in 1904 by the French mathematician Henri Poincaré, the conjecture is fundamental to achieving an understanding of three-dimensional shapes (compact manifolds). The simplest of these shapes is the three-dimensional sphere. It is contained in four-dimensional space, and is defined as the set of points at a fixed distance from a given point, just as the two-dimensional sphere (skin of an orange or surface of the earth) is defined as the set of points in three-dimensional space at a fixed distance from a given point (the center).
Since we cannot directly visualize objects in n-dimensional space, Poincaré asked whether there is a test for recognizing when a shape is the three-sphere by performing measurements and other operations inside the shape. The goal was to recognize all three-spheres even though they may be highly distorted. Poincaré found the right test (simple connectivity, see below). However, no one before Perelman was able to show that the test guaranteed that the given shape was in fact a three-sphere.
In the last century, there were many attempts to prove, and also to disprove, the Poincaré conjecture using the methods of topology. Around 1982, however, a new line of attack was opened. This was the Ricci flow method pioneered and developed by Richard Hamilton. It was based on a differential equation related to the one introduced by Joseph Fourier 160 years earlier to study the conduction of heat. With the Ricci flow equation, Hamilton obtained a series of spectacular results in geometry. However, progress in applying it to the conjecture eventually came to a standstill, largely because formation of singularities, akin to formation of black holes in the evolution of the cosmos, defied mathematical understanding.
Perelman's breakthrough proof of the Poincaré conjecture was made possible by a number of new elements. Perelman achieved a complete understanding of singularity formation in Ricci flow as well as the way parts of the shape collapse onto lower-dimensional spaces. He introduced a new quantity, the entropy, which decreases as time increases during Ricci flow, signaling an increase in the degree of geometric order in the underlying shape. He introduced a related local quantity, the L-functional, and he used the theories of Cheeger and Aleksandrov to understand limits of spaces changing under Ricci flow. He was also able to show that the time between formation of singularities could not become smaller and smaller, with singularities becoming spaced so closely - infinitesimally close - that the Ricci flow method would no longer apply. Perelman deployed his new ideas and methods with great technical mastery and described the results he obtained with elegant brevity. Mathematics has been deeply enriched.
Some other reactions
Fields medalist Stephen Smale, who solved the analogue of the Poincaré conjecture for spheres of dimension five or more, commented that: "Fifty years ago I was working on Poincaré's conjecture and thus hold a long-standing appreciation for this beautiful and difficult problem. The final solution by Grigoriy Perelman is a great event in the history of mathematics."
Donal O'Shea, Professor of Mathematics at Mt. Holyoke College and author of The Poincaré Conjecture, noted: "Poincaré altered twentieth-century mathematics by teaching us how to think about the idealized shapes that model our cosmos. It is very satisfying and deeply inspiring that Perelman's unexpected solution to the Poincaré conjecture, arguably the most basic question about such shapes, offers to do the same for the coming century."
History and Background
In the latter part of the nineteenth century, the French mathematician Henri Poincaré was studying the problem of whether the solar system is stable. Do the planets and asteroids in the solar system continue in regular orbits for all time, or will some of them be ejected into the far reaches of the galaxy or, alternatively, crash into the sun? In this work he was led to topology, a still new kind of mathematics related to geometry, and to the study of shapes (compact manifolds) of all dimensions.
The simplest such shape was the circle, or distorted versions of it such as the ellipse or something much wilder: lay a piece of string on the table, tie one end to the other to make a loop, and then move it around at random, making sure that the string does not touch itself. The next simplest shape is the two-sphere, which we find in nature as the idealized skin of an orange, the surface of a baseball, or the surface of the earth, and which we find in Greek geometry and philosophy as the "perfect shape." Again, there are distorted versions of the shape, such as the surface of an egg, as well as still wilder objects. Both the circle and the two-sphere can be described in words or in equations as the set of points at a fixed distance from a given point (the center). Thus it makes sense to talk about the three-sphere, the four-sphere, etc. These shapes are hard to visualize, since they naturally are contained in four-dimensional space, five-dimensional space, and so on, whereas we live in three-dimensional space. Nonetheless, with mathematical training, shapes in higher-dimensional spaces can be studied just as well as shapes in dimensions two and three.
In topology, two shapes are considered the same if the points of one correspond to the points of another in a continuous way. Thus the circle, the ellipse, and the wild piece of string are considered the same. This is much like what happens in the geometry of Euclid. Suppose that one shape can be moved, without changing lengths or angles, onto another shape. Then the two shapes are considered the same (think of congruent triangles). A round, perfect two-sphere, like the surface of a ping-pong ball, is topologically the same as the surface of an egg.
In 1904 Poincaré asked whether a three-dimensional shape that satisfies the "simple connectivity test" is the same, topologically, as the ordinary round three-sphere. The round three-sphere is the set of points equidistant from a given point in four-dimensional space. His test is something that can be performed by an imaginary being who lives inside the three-dimensional shape and cannot see it from "outside." The test is that every loop in the shape can be drawn back to the point of departure without leaving the shape. This can be done for the two-sphere and the three-sphere. But it cannot be done for the surface of a doughnut, where a loop may get stuck around the hole in the doughnut.
The question raised became known as the Poincaré conjecture. Over the years, many outstanding mathematicians tried to solve it--Poincaré himself, Whitehead, Bing, Papakirioukopolos, Stallings, and others. While their efforts frequently led to the creation of significant new mathematics, each time a flaw was found in the proof. In 1961 came astonishing news. Stephen Smale, then of the University of California at Berkeley (now at the City University of Hong Kong) proved that the analogue of the Poincaré conjecture was true for spheres of five or more dimensions. The higher-dimensional version of the conjecture required a more stringent version of Poincaré's test; it asks whether a so-called homotopy sphere is a true sphere. Smale's theorem was an achievement of extraordinary proportions. It did not, however, answer Poincaré's original question. The search for an answer became all the more alluring.
Smale's theorem suggested that the theory of spheres of dimensions three and four was unlike the theory of spheres in higher dimension. This notion was confirmed a decade later, when Michael Freedman, then at the University of California, San Diego, now of Microsoft Research Station Q, announced a proof of the Poincaré conjecture in dimension four. His work used techniques quite different from those of Smale. Freedman also gave a classification, or kind of species list, of all simply connected four-dimensional manifolds.
Both Smale (in 1966) and Freedman (in 1986) received Fields medals for their work.
There remained the original conjecture of Poincaré in dimension three. It seemed to be the most difficult of all, as the continuing series of failed efforts, both to prove and to disprove it, showed. In the meantime, however, there came three developments that would play crucial roles in Perelman's solution of the conjecture.
Geometrization
The first of these developments was William Thurston's geometrization conjecture. It laid out a program for understanding all three-dimensional shapes in a coherent way, much as had been done for two-dimensional shapes in the latter half of the nineteenth century. According to Thurston, three-dimensional shapes could be broken down into pieces governed by one of eight geometries, somewhat as a molecule can be broken into its constituent, much simpler atoms. This is the origin of the name, "geometrization conjecture."
A remarkable feature of the geometrization conjecture was that it implied the Poincaré conjecture as a special case. Such a bold assertion was accordingly thought to be far, far out of reach--perhaps a subject of research for the twenty-second century. Nonetheless, in an imaginative tour de force that drew on many fields of mathematics, Thurston was able to prove the geometrization conjecture for a wide class of shapes (Haken manifolds) that have a sufficient degree of complexity. While these methods did not apply to the three-sphere, Thurston's work shed new light on the central role of Poincaré's conjecture and placed it in a far broader mathematical context.
Limits of spaces
The second current of ideas did not appear to have a connection with the Poincaré conjecture until much later. While technical in nature, the work, in which the names of Cheeger and Perelman figure prominently, has to do with how one can take limits of geometric shapes, just as we learned to take limits in beginning calculus class. Think of Zeno and his paradox: you walk half the distance from where you are standing to the wall of your living room. Then you walk half the remaining distance. And so on. With each step you get closer to the wall. The wall is your "limiting position," but you never reach it in a finite number of steps. Now imagine a shape changing with time. With each "step" it changes shape, but can nonetheless be a "nice" shape at each step-- smooth, as the mathematicians say. For the limiting shape the situation is different. It may be nice and smooth, or it may have special points that are different from all the others, that is, singular points, or "singularities." Imagine a Y-shaped piece of tubing that is collapsing: as time increases, the diameter of the tube gets smaller and smaller. Imagine further that one second after the tube begins its collapse, the diameter has gone to zero. Now the shape is different: it is a Y shape of infinitely thin wire. The point where the arms of the Y meet is different from all the others. It is the singular point of this shape. The kinds of shapes that can occur as limits are called Aleksandrov spaces, named after the Russian mathematician A. D. Aleksandrov who initiated and developed their theory.
Differential equations
The third development concerns differential equations. These equations involve rates of change in the unknown quantities of the equation, e.g., the rate of change of the position of an apple as it falls from a tree towards the earth's center. Differential equations are expressed in the language of calculus, which Isaac Newton invented in the 1680s in order to explain how material bodies (apples, the moon, and so on) move under the influence of an external force. Nowadays physicists use differential equations to study a great range of phenomena: the motion of galaxies and the stars within them, the flow of air and water, the propagation of sound and light, the conduction of heat, and even the creation, interaction, and annihilation of elementary particles such as electrons, protons, and quarks.
In our story, conduction of heat and change of temperature play a special role. This kind of physics was first treated mathematically by Joseph Fourier in his 1822 book, Théorie Analytique de la Chaleur. The differential equation that governs change of temperature is called the heat equation. It has the remarkable property that as time increases, irregularities in the distribution of temperature decrease.
Differential equations apply to geometric and topological problems as well as to physical ones. But one studies not the rate at which temperature changes, but rather the rate of change in some geometric quantity as it relates to other quantities such as curvature. A piece of paper lying on the table has curvature zero. A sphere has positive curvature. The curvature is a large number for a small sphere, but is a small number for a large sphere such as the surface of the earth. Indeed, the curvature of the earth is so small that its surface has sometimes mistakenly been thought to be flat. For an example of negative curvature, think of a point on the bell of a trumpet. In some directions the metal bends away from your eye; in others it bends towards it.
An early landmark in the application of differential equations to geometric problems was the 1963 paper of J. Eells and J. Sampson. The authors introduced the "harmonic map equation," a kind of nonlinear version of Fourier's heat equation. It proved to be a powerful tool for the solution of geometric and topological problems. There are now many important nonlinear heat equations--the equations for mean curvature flow, scalar curvature flow, and Ricci flow.
Also notable is the Yang-Mills equation, which came into mathematics from the physics of quantum fields. In 1983 this equation was used to establish very strong restrictions on the topology of four-dimensional shapes on which it was possible to do calculus. These results helped renew hopes of obtaining other strong geometric results from analytic arguments--that is, from calculus and differential equations. Optimism for such applications had been tempered to some extent by the examples of René Thom (on cycles not representable by smooth submanifolds) and Milnor (on diffeomorphisms of the six-sphere).
Ricci flow
The differential equation that was to play a key role in solving the Poincaré conjecture is the Ricci flow equation. It was discovered independently by the physicist Honerkamp [Ho] in 1972 and by the mathematician Richard Hamilton [Ha1] in 1982. Honerkamp was working on the renormalization group in quantum field theory, and Hamilton was interested in geometric applications of the equation. Hamilton, now at Columbia University, was then at Cornell University.
On the left-hand side of the Ricci flow equation is a quantity that expresses how the geometry changes with time--the derivative of the metric tensor, as the mathematicians like to say. On the right-hand side is the Ricci tensor, a measure of the extent to which the shape is curved. The Ricci tensor, based on Riemann's theory of geometry (1854), also appears in Einstein's equations for general relativity (1915). Those equations govern the interaction of matter, energy, curvature of space, and the motion of material bodies.
The Ricci flow equation is the analogue, in the geometric context, of Fourier's heat equation. The idea, grosso modo, for its application to geometry is that, just as Fourier's heat equation disperses temperature, the Ricci flow equation disperses curvature. Thus, even if a shape was irregular and distorted, Ricci flow would gradually remove these anomalies, resulting in a very regular shape whose topological nature was evident. Indeed, in 1982 Hamilton showed that for positively curved, simply connected shapes of dimension three (compact three-manifolds) the Ricci flow transforms the shape into one that is ever more like the round three-sphere. In the long run, it becomes almost indistinguishable from this perfect, ideal shape. When the curvature is not strictly positive, however, solutions of the Ricci flow equation behave in a much more complicated way. This is because the equation is nonlinear. While parts of the shape may evolve towards a smoother, more regular state, other parts might develop singularities. This richer behavior posed serious difficulties. But it also held promise: it was conceivable that the formation of singularities could reveal Thurston's decomposition of a shape into its constituent geometric atoms.
Richard Hamilton
Hamilton was the driving force in developing the theory of Ricci flow in mathematics, both conceptually and technically. Among his many notable results is his 1999 paper [Ha2], which showed that in a Ricci flow, the curvature is pushed towards the positive near a singularity. Another result [Ha3], which played a crucial role in Perelman's proof, was the Hamilton Harnack inequality, which generalized to positive Ricci flows a result of Peter Li and Shing-Tung Yau for positive solutions of Fourier's heat equation.
Hamilton had established the Ricci flow equation as a tool with the potential to resolve both conjectures as well as other geometric problems. Nevertheless, serious obstacles barred the way to a proof of the Poincaré conjecture. Notable among these obstacles was lack of an adequate understanding of the formation of singularities in Ricci flow, akin to the formation of black holes in the evolution of the cosmos. Indeed, it was not at all clear how or if formation of singularities could be understood. Despite the new front opened by Hamilton, and despite continued work by others using traditional topological tools for either a proof or a disproof, progress on the conjectures came to a standstill.
Such was the state of affairs in 2000, when John Milnor wrote an article describing the Poincaré conjecture and the many attempts to solve it. At that writing, it was not clear whether the conjecture was true or false, and it was not clear which method might decide the issue. Analytic methods (differential equations) were mentioned in a later version (2004). See [M1] and [M2].
Perelman announces a solution of the Poincaré conjecture
It was thus a huge surprise when Grigoriy Perelman announced, in a series of preprints posted on ArXiv.org in 2002 and 2003, a solution not only of the Poincaré conjecture, but also of Thurston's geometrization conjecture [P1, P2, P3].
The core of Perelman's method of proof is the theory of Ricci flow. To its applications in topology he brought not only great technical virtuosity, but also new ideas. One was to combine the collapsing theory originating with the work of Jeff Cheeger with Ricci flow to give an understanding of the parts of the shape that were collapsing onto a lower-dimensional space. Another was the introduction of a new quantity, the entropy. Entropy, a notion familiar from the nineteenth-century theory of heat, expresses the second law of thermodynamics: as time increases, entropy, a measure of disorder at the atomic level, also increases--there is no turning back. Perelman's entropy is slightly different. It always decreases under Ricci flow as time increases, indicating a progressive increase in the amount of geometric order in the underlying shape. Using his entropy function and a related local version (the L-length functional), Perelman was able to understand the nature of the singularities that formed under Ricci flow. There were just a few kinds, and one could write down simple models of their formation. This was a breakthrough of first importance.
Once the simple models of singularities were understood, it was clear how to cut out the parts of the shape near them as to continue the Ricci flow past the times at which they would otherwise form. With these results in hand, Perelman showed that the formation times of the singularities could not run into Zeno's wall: imagine a singularity that occurs after one second, then after half a second more, then after a quarter of a second more, and so on. If this were to occur, the "wall," which one would reach two seconds after departure, would correspond to a time at which the mathematics of Ricci flow would cease to hold. The proof would be unattainable. But with this new mathematics in hand, attainable it was.
The posting of Perelman's preprints and his subsequent talks at MIT, SUNY-Stony Brook, Princeton, and the University of Pennsylvania set off a worldwide effort to understand and verify his groundbreaking work. In the US, Bruce Kleiner and John Lott wrote a set of detailed notes on Perelman's work. These were posted online as the verification effort proceeded. A final version was posted to ArXiv.org in May 2006, and the refereed article appeared in Geometry and Topology in 2008. This was the first time that work on a problem of such importance was facilitated via a public website. John Morgan and Gang Tian wrote a book-long exposition of Perelman's proof, posted on ArXiv.org in July of 2006, and published by the American Mathematical Society in CMI's monograph series (August 2007). These expositions, those by other teams, and, importantly, the multi-year scrutiny of the mathematical community, provided the needed verification. Perelman had solved the Poincaré conjecture. After a century's wait, it was settled!
Among other articles that appeared following Perelman's work is a paper in the Asian Journal of Mathematics, posted on ArXiv.org in June of 2006 by Huai-Dong Cao (Lehigh University) and Xi-Ping Zhu (Zhongshan University). Another is a paper by the French group of Bessieres, Besson, Boileau, Maillot, and Porti, posted on ArXiv.org in June of 2007. It was accepted for publication by Inventiones Mathematicae in October of 2009. It gives an alternative approach to the last step in Perelman's proof of the geometrization conjecture.
Perelman's proof of the Poincaré and geometrization conjectures is a major mathematical advance. His ideas and methods have already found new applications in analysis and geometry; surely the future will bring many more.
— JC, March 18, 2010
References
[Ha1] R. Hamilton, Three-manifolds with positive Ricci curvature, Journal of Differential Geometry, vol. 17:255-306 (1982)
[Ha2] R. Hamilton, Non-singular solutions of the Ricci flow on three-manifolds, Comm. Anal. Geom. 7(4): 695-729 (1999)
[Ha3] R. Hamilton, The Harnack estimate for Ricci flow, Journal of Differential Geometry, vol. 37:225-243 (1993)
[Ho] J. Honerkamp, (CERN), Chiral multiloops, Nucl. Phys. B36:130-140 (1972)
[P1] G. Perelman, The entropy formula for the Ricci flow and its geometric applications, arXiv.org, November 11, 2002
[P2] G. Perelman, Ricci flow with surgery on three-manifolds, arXiv.org, March 10, 2003
[P3] G. Perelman, Finite extinction time for the solutions to the Ricci flow on certain three-manifolds, arXiv.org, July 17, 2003
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